Ｔｈｅ　Ｉｎｆｌｕｅｎｃｅ　ｏｆ　Ｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ　ｏｎ　Ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎ：Ｃｈｉｎａ　ａｎｄ　Ａｍｅｒｉｃａ

张彩霞

中文摘要:这篇文章主要阐述了不同文化对中国教育和美国教育的不同影响。中国和美国有着不同的教育体系和教育方法;同时,父母对孩子的教育方法也不同。 为了完善中国的教育体制,我们应该改变我们的教育观念,强壮我们的经济,加强与其他国家的文化交流。

Abstract:This paper shows some different influences of culture on education in China and America. America and China have different education systems, which produce different education forms and methods. Also, parents use different methods to educate their children. In order to develop our education system in China, we must change our educational concepts, develop our economy and strengthen cultural communication with other countries.

关键字:文化 中国教育 美国教育

Key Words: Culture Chinese Education American Education

Introduction

It was October 18th, 2002. The conference on the comparison between Chinese education and American education was held in Shanghai. Some representatives raised the question: in the annual international Olympic competition for middle school students, Chinese students won gold medals for their intellectual achievements every year, but why is never anyone from China appearing on the Nobel awards stage? After discussion, some experts pointed out that it was due to different education systems within different cultures. This deepens on our understanding of the issues and

problems in the Chinese approach to education.

Culture and Education

Nowadays, “culture” may be one of the biggest buzzwords in our life, but we do not know the exact period of time when the word “culture” emerged. Every day, we can encounter a lot of fresh phrases concerned with “culture”, such as “commercial culture”, “automobile culture”, “city culture”, “movie culture”, and even “WC culture”. Sometimes we are really puzzled. So when we talk about the discrepancy between the influences of culture on education, it is necessary for us to impose and make clear the concept ------culture.

“Culture is an extremely complex concept and an enormous subject. It almost embraces everything in the world, whether material or spiritual. However complex it is, it can be roughly classified into three categories in scope: material culture, which refers to all the products of nature and manufacture, institutional culture, which refers to social systems, religious systems, ritual systems, educational systems, and kinship systems, and mental culture, which refers to peoples mentalities and behaviors, beliefs, perceptions, concepts of value, and thought patterns”. (Chen Hongwei , From—Changing for Faithfulness in Chinese—English Translation: A Cultural Perspective P257)

Education is included in institutional culture and it is an important part of culture. Education is increasingly important in modern societies because it determines, in large measures, the success or failure of a nation in global competition. Education is like a big window, according to the English novelist, Mary Webb. Through this big window, we can see a lot of things, which can reflect a nations culture. However, different countries have different education systems, which reveal different cultural assumptions. In the following section, we are going to look at different influences of culture on education in china and America.

Differences between Chinese Education and American Education

A. Different Education Systems: Historical and Economic Factors

China and America have different education systems.This has both historical factors and economic factors

The Chinese education system has long been influenced by Confucian thought. In Confucian China, the major goal of education was not so much the transmission of knowledge or the learning of skills, as it was the internalization of a set of ethical principles that governed human behavior in all conceivable situations. Education consisted in learning and faithfully reproducing the content and style of the Five Classical and Four Books from Confucian and his disciples. The learning method consisted of repletion and memorization, or “backing the book”, and selection for government employee was made by a rigorous system of examination, which still exists.

Many features of the ancient Chinese education system exist today: respect for the past and elders, learning by heart, careful selection of candidates for high office, reverences for teachers and parents, and the authority of classic texts. These deeply affect the Chinese education system, especially the examining system, which has been considered as the most important part in teaching for many years. Although the government advocates changing the attitude towards examination, exams are still most important in most of the parents and schools eyes. Undeniable, having an examination in our populous big country is the important way that the country chooses talents, but it is not the only method to improve a persons ability, it is not the only way to choose talents.

In an attempt to find out historical root of the influence of American culture on education, we have to trace back to the ancient American Indians. The American Continents was peopled as a result of two long------continuing immigration movements, the first from Asia, and the second from Europe and Africa. When the people from Asia, mistakenly called Indians by Christopher Columbus, landed on that land, they had to adapt themselves to the unfamiliar climates and crops. They fought against the wild nature and also they always moved again and again. They faced a lot of difficulties and overcame them by themselves. They did things individually, so “individualism” became their belief and affected their descendants. They educated their descendants to think and solve problems by themselves. The second movement was from Europe and Africa from 16th century. The people moved westward regularly and on their long journey, they challenged the wild nature and themselves, which gifted them “pioneering spirit” that is still true of todays Americans.

Great changes took place in the education system after World WarⅠand World WarⅡ. After World WarⅠ,the soldiers went back to America from Europe. As a reward to the soldiers, the government decided to pay for their university education. It made people become aware of the importance of universal education. America benefited a lot from World WarⅡ.That tragic event introduced changes that affected every institution in America---including the schools. It again prompted the idea of universal education. American parents ---especially young couples who married in the late 1940s---wanted their children to be educated for the postwar. At the same time, American blacks and other minority groups demanded educational opportunities equal to those of whites. After World WarⅡ,almost every state had its own university, so the residents could go to university. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century had far ---reaching effects on American education. To invent new machines and to operate them, a mere knowledge of religion and the classics was obviously inadequate. As a result, more institutions were founded and education widened its range to include more practical subjects. America made rapid progress in the technology. Between 1950 and 1960, more new knowledge was developed than in all of the worlds history before 1950. More science courses were added to the curriculum and, some as a result of the orbiting of the first man-made satellite, Sputnik, by the Soviet Union in 1957. The government began to spend millions for the development of new science curricula and training teachers to use them. Teachers were supposed not only to impart new knowledge, but also to help students ask their own questions about it. The “inquiry” method of learning, focusing on solving problems rather than memorizing facts, which is true of Chinese students, became popular. So todays American classes tend to be “class activities” and “student—centered”.

Students are part of one of the most ambitious undertakings in the history of education: the American effort to educate an entire national population. The goal is ---and has been since the early decades of the Republic----to achieve universal literacy and to provide individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to promote both their own individual welfare as well as that of the general public. Though this goal has not yet been fully achieved, it remains an ideal toward which the American education system is directed.The progress that has been made is notable both for its scope and for the educational methods that have been developed in the process of achieving it. But we want at the same time the clear one is seen, behind the ones that are educated in this kind of Volkswagen, have paid the high cost too—reducing of the quality. The existing problem is at present: teaching time is shortened, teaching demands to reduce. Because emphasize cultivation of ability excessively, even simple letter can not, there are high school students, the basic one adds subtracts operation can not calculated.

The economy is another important factor influencing education system. China is a developing country. Its education is described as “穷国办大教育”(large-scale education in a poor country). In most Middle School, there are over 50 students in each class. It is difficult for students to do some class activities. Many schools, especially in western areas and in the poverty—stricken countryside, are very poor. Facilities in schools are out of date. Students have to have classes in shabby classrooms and they have no modern studying equipment. Also, schools are too poor to afford the training of teachers. Although some schools in big cities are rich enough, but the teachers quality is not very high. They are reluctant to try new methods or they cant use them at all. The low quality of teachers is really a great impediment to educational innovation. America is a developed country. Every year, the government invests a lot of money in educational development. Schools are equipped with modern teaching facilities. With modern equipments, teachers are encouraged to try many new teaching methods. And America pays more attention to the quality of teachers: a teacher must have many certificates to prove that he or she is qualified in many aspects, morality, deportment and teaching skills, for instance. A lot of teacher training is provided in the USA, including morality training, teaching skill training, psychology training and professional training.

So, to revitalize our education, the government should try to develop Chinas economy. Then we can increase its financial contribution to education to improve the facilities, the quality of teachers, and the management of schools. Also, we should balance the “resource disposal” between eastern and western areas, the cities and the countryside, and the key schools and other schools.

B.Different school education

1. What is taught in school?

Looked at from different aspects, Chinese children seem cleverer than American children. They can recite many formulas and poems when they are very young, although those are beyond what they should learn at that age level. But, American children cannot do such things. They even make mistakes in a simple calculation. Is it true that Chinese are cleverer than Americans? Of course not. Chinese parents always consider the children who know knowledge beyond their age as clever children. In order not to fall behind other children, parents and teachers stuff the children full of knowledge. They make the children recite a lot, which makes the children think in fixed thinking forms: they always think A is A, and cannot be B. American children can think about things in many different, even strange ways. American teachers aim to teach the students what they are interested in and do not limit the childrens imagination and thinking in a fixed circle. This is why the Chinese children are not so creative as American ones.

In Chinese middle schools, students learn the subjects arranged by the Ministry of Education. Among the subjects, Chinese, math, and English are considered as “main courses” and “history, biology etc are thought as not as important as the “main courses”. When the examinations come, main courses always occupy the time of other subjects. Students who get high marks in main courses are considered as “excellent students”. While in American secondary schools, besides the basic courses, students are guided by school counselors in choosing electives, which can range from specialized academic to vocational subjects. For example, high schools offer more than one year ---in most cases, several years---of math Science and other core subjects. After they complete the required units in these core areas (for example, one year of American history), students can take additional units as electives (perhaps a year of European history and a year of world political issues).

In university, Chinese students still have a lot of required courses to attend. In the first two years, students mainly learn some basic courses. In the next 2 years, they follow on studying their major. But a lot of curriculums arent practical. they put emphasis on theory, but not on practicability. It makes students unable to put what they learn into practice. Here let me cite an example. A graduate from Qinghua, the top university in China, went to a company for an interview. His major was physics and he did well in his major courses. But to the surprise of the interviewers, he could not connect a very simple lighting circuit. From the example, we can see we must emphasize the practicability of what we learn. In addition, one problem existing in Chinas universities is that those major establishments are not in accordance with the need of the market. This explains why it is very difficult for students with some majors to find jobs. We must adjust the major establishments according to the market.

In American universities, classes vary from seminars, or small discussion groups, to large lecture courses for hundreds of students and students have lots of chances to practice and students can use what they have learnt in real life soon, which reinforce their practical ability. For American students, after they pass the required courses, they can learn what they are interested in. Many elective courses are available to them. Except the required course, a sizeable percentage of time is given over to self-study. Students can go to “self-access” center. There are a lot of books available, also some competent teachers on duty to offer help and advice. Students choose topics by themselves. They take responsibilities for their own learning.

But this message mentioned above may be difficult for some students from certain educational background and cultures who have been led to believe that it is the teachers job to provide learning. Thats why the Chinese students studying in American universities “pace up and down” wondering which topic should be chosen because they have been used to being given a certain topic by teacher.

2. Examination—oriented VS. Quality---oriented

Testing is an important part of the education. However, it plays different roles in China and the United States. Chinese education system is described by many experts and government officials as examination—oriented system, and performance in exams seems to be more often than not, considered the only yardstick to measure a students intellectual ability. In many cases, ones success or failure in exams has far-reaching consequences for a students life. The annual National Entrance Exam held in June is a case in point. Those who pass the exam are considered talented students and are qualified to go to universities. Those who fail are considered inferior students and are denied the chance to go to state-owned universities.

In contrast to Chinas examination-oriented education system, American education is best described as quality-oriented. That it, the goal of education is to improve peoples quality and develop their ability. Such a system attaches more importance to cultivation of a students ability to think clearly and solve problems. Unlike the Chinese approach to education, the American one does not value so highly a students ability to cope with various exams. Students performance in exams is but one part, perhaps not the most important part of the criteria for evaluating their academic achievements. If one wants to go to the college, he or she should submit detailed application forms and take scholastic aptitude and achievement exams. College Admission Committees decide which school records, and other factors such as personal interviews with the applications and letters of recommendation from high school teachers. The American approach to education holds that education should enable students to become sophisticated human beings capable of standing on their own when leaving school and entering society.

3. Memory---based VS. Understanding---based.

CaseⅠ:In one classroom in an American secondary school, the students are having a geography class. They are talking about “pollution”. The teacher leaves a case to students for them to discuss. The case is that “a factory is forced to stop producing by the government because of pollution”. The students discuss the case in groups and they suggest some ways to solve the problem. For example, where should the factory be located, how to reduce pollution, etc. Through the discussion, the students learn some knowledge about pollution and learn some ways to solve pollution problems.

CaseⅡ: In one classroom in a Chinese middle school, the students have a geography class, talking about “pollution”. The teacher asks the students to open the book and from the content of text, the teacher tells the students where a factory should be located, what they should do, etc. The students are listening to the teacher carefully and making some notes vigorously at the same time. They learn them by heart.

Different education systems presuppose different approaches to learning: one is memory-based and one is understanding-based.Related to different approaches to learning are different attitudes towards books. For many Chinese students and teachers books are thought of as the embodiment of knowledge, wisdom and truth knowledge is “in” the book and can be taken out and put inside the students heads. Just like Emperor of Song Dynasty said “In books there are thousands of bushels of grain, in books horses and carriages aboard, in books can be found women with contusions of jade”. (宋真宗 赵恒 “书中自有千钟黍,书中车马多如簇,书中自有颜如玉) Hence the reverences with which books are treated, the value they are assigned, and the wish to learn by heart what they contain.

For American, books contain facts, opinions and ideas. The facts are open to interpretation, the opinions to dispute, and the ideas to discuss. There is nothing sacred about books, which are regarded as tools for learning---not the goal of learning.

4. Teacher—centered VS. Student—centered

Before we come to the theory, lets have a look at an example. It is a “History Week” for American primary students. They cooperate with their partners and they all participate. They actually act out historical roles. For the teachers, they do not have to read the books to the students and they need not tell students what and how to remember. They have the students experience and understand the events themselves. Teachers only play a role as a “link”.

While in Chinese history class, the students seems to be listening to a lecture, and they try best to follow the teacher, taking down a teachers often unsatisfactory summary of the complicated issues. The knowledgeable teacher delivers his monologue, dispensing one dry fact after another, obviously to students, tired eyes and stifled yawns. One educator once said, “Chinese students ask no questions to pretend that they understand what the teacher teaches. But American students pretend that they understand by asking questions”. That is the difference. Different education systems produce different effects on students. It is safe to say that Chinese students are passive in the process of learning while American student are more active, which is far more beneficial for them.

Compared with their American counterparts, Chinese students are used to a highly directive style of teaching, that is, they expect the class to be like a lecture rather than a seminar. They expect the teacher to tell them everything about a topic, and do not like being asked many questions in class. The teacher will usually talk on and on throughout the class and ask fewer questions. When the teacher does ask a question, there are few, if any students volunteering to answer it. The teacher has to nominate this or that student to answer a question. Therefore, in class there is little interaction. Being used to this passive way of learning, Chinese students are not very active in classroom group discussions. Many students even have a negative view of group discussions, thinking it a waste of time.

In short, the Chinese way of learning and teaching can be described as teacher—centered. In contrast, the American way can be described as students—centered, that is, the learning and teaching process depends much or more on students than on teachers. The class is more like a seminar than a lecture, with the teacher talking for only a short period and the students talking most of the time. The teacher does not bother to explain everything about a topic, but tries to lead his students to discover something on their own. The teacher is like “the guide on the side, rather than the sage on the stage.” In this process, the students have to engage themselves in active thinking and frequent, even heated debate. There is a lot of interaction between students and teachers that contributes much to the students learning.

Conclusion

In the foregoing, we have touched on some major differences between the Chinese and American education systems. In doing this, we have been critical of the Chinese approach to education because of its numerous problems, which are being addressed by the government and educators in the present ongoing education reform. It is encouraging to see that education in China had undergone profound changes with its guiding principles that we should gear education to the needs of modernization, the world and the future. This policy must be put into effect. We know that, deeply influenced by Confucian thought, it is difficult to change all the nations ideas about education in a short period of time, but our generations concerning the education system of Chinese and Americans will hopefully deepen understanding the issues and problems in the Chinese approach to education.

One efficient way of aiding this understanding is to strengthen communication between the schools at home and abroad. Nowadays, a lot of schools in China have developed their friendship and communication with many famous schools in foreign countries. A lot of people go abroad to study as visiting scholars every year. They bring new ideas back and give our education system new blood. Thus, we must strengthen the cultural communication between China and outside world, which is called intercultural communication. Modern society has made IC a necessary. We must follow a principle, to outside culture while inheriting traditional marrow of culture, selecting the essence, discarding the dross. With the development of science and technology, the world seems to be shrinking, and modern transportation and communication, electronic media and international organizations have brought us near the people in other hemisphere as if they were next—door neighbors. The mobility of people and the contact between countries have greatly increased intercultural communication. In todays world, intercultural awareness has become a prerequisite for successful IC. China is developing at a high speed, with its entering the WTO, successfully biding for the Olympic Games, etc. These all provide China with more chances to embrace the world. We must strengthen the cultural communication between china and the outside world. We will indeed link with the “international rail” on condition that we have intercultural awareness.