自我的革命

Self-Revolution： What is "decolonising the museum" in the Western context

ZHANG Anke

University of Leicester

Abstract As a radical approach， "decolonising" is being applied to diverse sectors， as well as to the museum sector. "Decolonising the museum" is an ongoing and evolving process that involves acknowledging and tackling the legacy of ethnography; critically revealing colonial roots and telling the hard truths of colonialism; proactively empowering source communities and including diverse voices and multiple perspectives; and responding to requests for repatriation actively and carefully. This essay is an attempt to clarify what "decolonising the museum" is in the Western context， gather together diverse attitudes and thoughts from museum practitioners， scholars， and pay specific attention to the repatriation of colonial-era collections.

Keywords decolonising the museum， repatriation of objects， equality and inclusion

Abstract As a radical approach， "decolonising" is being applied to diverse sectors， as well as to the museum sector. "Decolonising the museum" is an ongoing and evolving process that involves acknowledging and tackling the legacy of ethnography; critically revealing colonial roots and telling the hard truths of colonialism; proactively empowering source communities and including diverse voices and multiple perspectives; and responding to requests for repatriation actively and carefully. This essay is an attempt to clarify what "decolonising the museum" is in the Western context， gather together diverse attitudes and thoughts from museum practitioners， scholars， and pay specific attention to the repatriation of colonial-era collections.

Keywords decolonising the museum， repatriation of objects， equality and inclusion

0 Introduction

The term "decolonising" is not a new concept， but it is becoming increasingly visible in the public consciousness in recent times， due to the efforts of indigenous peoples and activists[1]. Although mainland China never turned into a colony of the British Empire， while Hong Kong did from 1841 to 1997， the result of the Opium War and the ghost of colonialism continue to exert influence on many affairs between the UK and China， not only politically， economically， but also culturally. In terms of decolonisation， it does not merely refer to the geographical independence of the colonised， but it also has something to do with the legacy of this long colonial history. Now we see it is happening throughout the world： the great wave of decolonising in some particular fields， like education， archaeology， and in this essay， museums， which are "almost always a by-product of colonialism or imperial conquest"[2].

This essay is an attempt to gather together different attitudes towards this movement and show the complexities when museums seek to understand and deal with colonial legacies， especially the problems of verifying provenance of some collections. It begins by defining the concept of "decolonising" with the intention to figure out the background and the root cause of this emerging approach within museums. It will then go on to look at the perspectives and practice from museum practitioners， scholars， media， and the relevant issues they have confronted and questioned as well as the consequent challenges. The third section is concerned with the questions surrounding the return of plundered artworks held in Western institutions， particularly focusing on Chinese heritage lost through military loot and illicit sales[3]. Following above examination， the essay will conclude with an applicable suggestion to serve to create a more social inclusive museum.

1 The Concept of "Decolonising"

What is "decolonising"？ We might begin by understanding the conceptualisation of the term "decolonisation" and the term "decoloniality"， and by shedding light on what "coloniality" has brought about.

To start with， "decolonisation" is a derivative word of "decolonise"， which firstly came into use in 1851. The definition of "decolonisation" is "the process in which a country that was previously a colony becomes politically independent" according to the Cambridge English Dictionary. In this sense， "decolonisation" here refers to the dismantlement of the colonial empires， and thus is political and historical to a large extent. While in academia， decolonial theories have been developed by scholars for example Frantz Fanon， [Aní][bal] Quijano， Walter D. Mignolo， Linda Tuhiwai Smith and so on. Here emerges the "epistemic （intellectual） decolonisation"; [Ramó][n] Grosfoguel describes it as "second decolonisation" while the term "decoloniality" instead is preferred by the members of the modernity/coloniality research project so as to indicate the distinction[4]. For them， the terminological advantage of "decoloniality" over "decolonisation" is double. On the one hand， "decoloniality" evolves from "decolonisation"， but pays more attention to the decolonisation of knowledge rather than merely of banishing the colonisers from the territory[5]; on the other hand， "decoloniality" obviously identifies the action or the process of revealing and undoing "the logic of coloniality"， which distinguishes from the various meanings associated with "post-coloniality"[4]. Having considered the subtle differences between "decolonisation" and "decoloniality"， it is time to look at the living legacies of European colonialism so as to better comprehend the significance of "epistemic decolonisation" in the contemporary world.

Frantz Fanon， who is most famous for his "classic analysis of colonialism and decolonisation"， has pointed out in The Wretched of the Earth that：

Colonialism is not simply content to impose its rule upon the present and the future of a dominated country. Colonialism is not satisfied merely with holding a people in its grip and emptying the native’s brain of all form and content. By a kind of perverted logic， it turns to the past of the oppressed people， and distorts， disfigures and destroys it.[6]

In uncovering the underlying "perverse logic" of colonialism， it is evident that colonisation is not only a political， territorial administration， but also an epistemic domination "of souls， of minds， of spirits， of beings"[4]. Since Fanon’s expression of the epistemic colonisation， the idea that knowledge is colonised as well， and that thus we should think about how to decolonise the "knowledge and being" is widely acknowledged and communicated.

[Aní][bal] Quijano further introduces the concept of "coloniality of power"， which continues to exist to this day in the form of social discriminations and hierarchical orders in spite of the fact that the formal （political） colonialism has been destroyed. He concludes the essay with the assertion that "epistemological decolonisation"， as "decoloniality"， is required to "clear the way" for a genuinely "intercultural communication" and for an exchange of "experiences and meanings"， which is the foundation of "another rationality".[7]

Expanding upon the concept of "coloniality of power"， Walter D. Mignolo focuses on the "unity" of the "colonial matrix of power" that was "created， consolidated， augmented， and controlled by Western imperialism" in the making of the modern/colonial world since the 16th century， of which there are two sides： the evident "rhetoric of modernity" and the darker "logic of coloniality"; that is to say， without coloniality， there is no modernity[5]. What’s more， standing on the foundation of racial classification and patriarchal relations， that specific structure （i.e. "colonial matrix of power"）， according to Mignolo， manages and controls four interrelated spheres， namely economy， authority， gender and sexuality， knowledge and subjectivity， in which it operates and produces many a hierarchic order， for example， a military hierarchy， a spiritual hierarchy， an epistemic hierarchy， an aesthetic hierarchy and so on[5]. However， keep in mind that it is at the "epistemological level that the rhetoric of modernity" gains prevalence[4]. For that reason， "epistemic decolonisation" is absolutely necessary， important and imperative. Apart from the task of recognising and destroying the logic of coloniality， "decoloniality"， synonymous with decolonial thinking and decolonial doing， as Mignolo claims， also means the task of contributing to the global futures in which "many worlds will coexist"[5].

Taken together， it shows that both the term "decolonisation" and the term "decoloniality" take on the layer of meaning of epistemic disobedience. With the purpose of signifying the continuing process of delinking from the colonial power structure that functions in the "bureaucratic， cultural， linguistic and psychological" spheres[8]， the term "decolonising" is preferred and used more frequently in the essay.

2 Decolonial Thinking & Decolonial Doing

As Fred Wilson says： "awareness is the first step"[9]， once you have that awareness， you cannot deny the reality. It is true that the last two decades have witnessed rising concerns and efforts in the museums to perform their social roles to reach their potential and impact on equality， diversity， social justice and social inclusion[9]. Those changes in thinking and doing result from growing claims from museum audiences， especially the marginalised communities， to have their voices heard， as well as continuing push from museological scholars and artists’ interventions[10].

However， according to Sumaya Kassim’s co-curating "The Past Is Now" exhibition experience at the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery， she comments that this co-curation process revealed that the staff lacked understanding of what decoloniality is and who it is for， and that they only knew this in theory but not prepared in practice， in particular when she threw out expression like "systematic racism"， which they had never been faced with. She reminds that： "decolonising is deeper than just being represented"; there is a risk of decoloniality becoming another buzzword like "diversity"， because it is a complicated notion that requires "complex processes， space， money， and time". Kassim also describes the challenges of decolonising based on the fact that the legacies of European colonialism are so "deep， far-reaching and ever-mutating" that decolonial doing must vary in different ways and therefore evolve at the same time. In spite of this difficult co-curation， she still believes that decolonising is an action they all must work hard together with institutional actors， who maybe have no chance but to adopt decoloniality[11]. Overall， "The Past Is Now" exhibition was held in an attempt to reassess history and reflect on how colonial processes influence current times， which attracted British national press coverage and had a huge impact; in some sense， it was a successful decolonial project by means of illustrating objects related to slavery and the British Empire to the public.

Another case of decolonial practice is meant to question， or to get away from the hierarchy shaped by European civilisation. As said above， colonial power also manifests itself in the systems of knowledge and of aesthetics; that is to say， these Western institutions have established standards of what art is and what craft is， of what nature is and what culture is， of the beautiful and the ugly， of what shall be displayed and what shall be disposed of， of what shall be highlighted and what shall be neglected[5]. Since contemporary museums originate from the "cabinet of curiosities"， in which European gentlemen in the 16th century collected and categorised the world， and which then developed into storehouses of imperial spoils， museums are so embedded in this colonial structure that they take it for granted and continue to maintain this order.

"Mobile Worlds"， a new type of gallery organized by German curator Roger M. Buergel at the Museum [fü][r] Kunst und Gewerbe， emerges as an approach to disobeying the hierarchy in the museum. In this world， objects are arranged by their movement — "how objects and forms circulate through time and across the globe"， not by origin and type; objects displayed here could be either valuable or cheap， either unique or mass-produced， either made by familiar figures or unknown. In addition， there are nearly no interpretations to help visitors comprehend the relationships between the objects displayed together， and the underlying meaning they signify. As a result， visitors have to look closely and to consider how to evaluate the importance and beauty of an item. What’s more， in order to show his defying to the invisible logic of the museum， the curator Mr. Buergel even uses those old-style cabinets from the museum’s storeroom to exhibit this collection. Although Jason Farago， an art critic， comments that the juxtapositions are over-refined， he still has a high opinion of this exhibition as it tried to "apply new thinking to old collections and institutions"; and he argues that it is not enough to simply call for "decolonisation"， and that a serious 21st century museum should have to "unsettle the very labels" inherited from the imperial era： "nations and races， East and West， art and craft"， and to narrate the "hideously violent" past.[12]

3 Colonial-Era Collections in Western Museums

Apart from decolonial awareness， telling the hard truths， questioning the fundamental basis of the museum， a further important aspect of "decolonising the museum" is about how museums will decolonise their collections acquired during colonial times， particularly the spoils， the pillaged. Inevitably， it is a long-standing， contentious issue and it will persist.

When it comes to repatriation， Tristram Hunt， the director of the Victoria and Albert Museum， said the institution would investigate the possibility of a long-term loan offer of the historical artefacts in response to the demands by Ethiopia， which was rejected by the Ethiopian government[13]. Similarly， Hartwig Fischer， the director of the British Museum， evaded this critical question in an interview by the Guardian Newspaper， but he emphasised the value of an encyclopaedic museum， "a museum of the world for the world" and "a repository of global knowledge"， which "creates an extraordinary opportunity to see cultural heritage in a context you have in only a very few places" thanks to the contribution made by the cultures of the whole world[14]. His views， to certain extent， have shown how engrained the Eurocentrism is， and how consciously he ignores other countries’ trauma and unwillingness.

In contrast to debating the physical ownership of collections， Haidy Geismar has adopted a term —guardianship— from Maori culture to suggest an alternative view of cultural property. Geismar explains that： the concept of guardianship acknowledges "both the rights and responsibilities of the museum and other owners in the care of collections" and acknowledges the "political and social relations" as vital to the identities of objects. She also points out that the notion of guardianship is applicable not only to indigenous inheritance but also to all tangible and intangible cultural heritage[15]. "Shared guardianship of heritage"， as a major strand of the new museum ethics proposed by Janet Marstine， she states that： "guardianship prioritises repatriation as a human right and emphasises the strengthening relationships that the return of cultural 'property' inspires".[16] Besides， it is indicated that just repatriating objects is not enough due to the consideration of broader issues like entitlements and identity. By contrast， guardianship takes account of "agreements and partnerships" with conventional holders. This has been seen in the case of the Brooklyn Museum of Art’s handover of its important costume collection to the Metropolitan Museum of Art[16].

However， things become more complicated with regard to Chinese antiquities. Since 2010， there have been a number of burglaries of Chinese items from museums throughout Europe. From a personal perspective， it is sad to see lost artworks return to China in this way — stealing back， even though most of them were stolen by British and French troops after the looting of the Old Summer Palace. Other than security upgrades， it is high time that European museums reconsidered formal repatriation demands from China and other nations.

4 Conclusion

This essay has attempted to figure out the root cause and the real meaning of decolonisation， explore the different forms when applying the concept of "decolonising" in the museum context， and bring together views on sensitive objects in Western museums. It is argued that "decolonising" is an ongoing process calling for lifelong learning， keeping on moving forward and collaborative hard work. Our observation here has presented cases where raising awareness is fundamental to "decolonising"， where telling the hard truths is essential to "decolonising"， and where questioning the normalised hierarchy is significant to "decolonising".

On the basis of this， it is suggested that museums should invite diverse co-curators to investigate new narratives， use colonial-era collections to combat social injustice， allow for shared guardianship to benefit both parts， embrace more public engagement to respect different values and employ mixed workforce to bring dynamics. Indeed， the museum cannot be regenerated overnight， but if we do not try our best to dismantle those borders and privileges that deny access to changes， the museum will never be reformed.

References

[1]Geraldine Kendall Adams. Tackling colonial legacies[EB/OL]. （2018-11-01）. https：//www.museumsassociation.org/museums-journal/features/01112018-tackling-colonial- legacies.

[2]Hannah Turner. Introduction to postcolonialism[R]. Leicester： University of Leicester， 2019.

[3]Richard Curt Kraus. The repatriation of plundered Chinese art[J]. The China Quarterly， 2009（3）： 837-842.

[4]Walter D. Mignolo. Delinking： The rhetoric of modernity， the logic of coloniality and the grammar of de-coloniality[M]// Walter D. Mignolo， Arturo Escobar. Globalization and the decolonial option. Oxon： Routledge， 2010： 303-368.

[5]Walter D. Mignolo. The darker side of Western modernity： Global futures， decolonial options[M]. Durham & London： Duke University Press， 2011.

[6]Frantz Fanon. The wretched of the earth[M]. Constance Farrington. London： MacGibbon & Kee， 1965： 170.

[7][Aní][bal] Quijano. Coloniality and modernity/rationality[M]// Walter D. Mignolo， Arturo Escobar. Globalization and the decolonial option. Oxon： Routledge， 2010： 22-32.

[8]Linda Tuhiwai Smith. Decolonizing methodologies： Research and indigenous peoples[M]. London & New York： Zed Books， 2012： 175.

[9]Janet Marstine. Museologically speaking： An interview with Fred Wilson[M]// Richard Sandell， Eithne Nightingale. Museums， equality， and social justice. Oxon： Routledge， 2012： 38-44.

[10]Helen Mears， Wayne Modest. Museums， African collections and social justice[M]// Richard Sandell， Eithne Nightingale. Museums， equality， and social justice. Oxon： Routledge， 2012： 294-309.

[11]Sumaya Kassim. The museum will not be decolonised[EB/OL]. （2017-11-15）. https：//mediadiversified.org/2017/11/ 15/the-museum-will-not-be-decolonised/.

[12]Jason Farago. A new type of museum for an age of migration[EB/OL]. （2018-07-11）. https：//www.nytimes.com/2018/ 07/11/arts/design/germany-mobile-worlds-mkg-museum.html？rref=collection%2Fbyline%2Fjason-farago.

[13]Robin Scher. Back to where they once belonged： Proponents of repatriation of African artworks take issue with the past and present and future[EB/OL]. （2018-06-26）. http：//www.artnews.com/2018/06/26/back-belonged-proponents-repatriation-african-artworks-take-issue-past-present- future/.

[14]Charlotte Higgins. British Museum director Hartwig Fischer： "There are no foreigners here - the museum is a world country"[EB/OL]. （2018-04-13）. https：//www.theguardian.com/culture/2018/apr/13/british-museum-director-hartwig- fischer-there-are-no-foreigners-here-the-museum-is-a-world- country.

[15]Haidy Geismar. Cultural property， museums， and the Pacific： Reframing the debates[J]. International Journal of Cultural Property， 2008（2）： 109-122.

[16]Janet Marstine. The contingent nature of the new museum ethics[M]// Janet Marstine. The Routledge companion to museum ethics： Redefining ethics for the twenty-first century museum. Oxon： Routledge， 2011： 3-25.

自我的革命——論西方博物馆语境中的“去殖民化”//张安可

作者单位：英国莱斯特大学，E-mail： zgjstsyy@163.com

摘 要：西方博物馆的“去殖民化”是一个逐步而持续的过程，致力于接纳多元视角和声音，共同建设一个更具社会包容性的公共空间。基于西方博物馆领域内正在发生的去殖民化运动，介绍了相关专家、学者、媒体对博物馆“去殖民化”的观点和态度，并具体分析了殖民时期文物的归还问题。事实上，博物馆不可能一夜之间得到重建，但如果我们不尽最大努力去拆除那些阻碍改变的边界和特权，那么博物馆的自我革命就永远不会发生。

关键词：去殖民化 文物归还 平等与包容