Issues and suggestions of implementing EMI in China

王若男

1. Introduction

English-medium instruction （EMI） is an educational phenomenon that has been spreading rapidly across educational systems all over the world. Brochier （2016） describes EMI as “teaching subjects using the English language without explicit language learning aims and usually in a country where English is not spoken by a majority of the people” （cited in Walkinshaw et al.， 2017）. Taguchi （2014） also defines EMI as a tool for academic study without explicit language outcomes （ibid）. Hsieh and Kang （2007） suggest that EMI courses could be regarded as extra opportunities to improve learners English proficiency. These courses can provide students with more opportunities to learn English through receiving and producing English in real communicative contexts （Swales， 1990）.

Education with the medium of a language other than ones first language has over 500 years long history （Coyle， 2007）. With the speeding up of globalization， more and more non-English speaking countries introduce bilingual education to their own higher education system， and English as Medium Instruction （EMI） is one of the teaching approaches. By doing this， these countries aim to not only increase students English communication abilities with a global vision and national competitiveness but also attract international students and spread national cultures （Dearden & Macaro， 2016）. Although EMI teaching has developed rapidly in recent years， methodology and curriculum for EMI teaching vary from a different context.

In this essay， I will discuss the present situation of EMI development at home and abroad， issues of implementing EMI and suitable curriculum and methodology in my context.

2. Context

My context is based on the school of Economics at my university， which is situated in Chengdu， China. My university is a comprehensive public university with 12 schools.

The courses of the School of Economics consist of two main types： general courses and professional courses. General courses refer to basic educational courses like Language， Mathematics， Literature， History & Culture， Moral education courses， which are the same as most schools. Professional courses refer to courses related to students major such as Microeconomics and Macroeconomics. We also have two lectures of English language courses in the first and second year of the study， which is contained in general courses， with 3 hours a week in total. There is an experimental class implementing EMI based on the major of International Economics in the School of Economics. In this class， general courses are taught in our mother tongue， Mandarin， while all the professional courses are taught through the medium of English and occasionally assisted with Mandarin. I am one of the students in the experimental class who learn through the medium of English.

Students in this class major in International Economics. They need to take a screening exam， which consists of English and Mathematics. The screening procedure takes place before students are enrolled in this school. Only the top 40 students can be admitted to this class. Students in this major mainly expect to further their studies and get a masters degree in the International Economics field.

The teachers assigned to teach this class have excellent academic ability in the field of Economics. They mostly have oversea studying experience or educational visiting experience in English speaking countries.

In addition， all the studying materials are authentic in English language. As is well-known， International Economics is derived from western countries. Many British and American scholars made a great contribution in this field， such as Paul Samuelson， David Ricardo， Paul Krugman， etc. Naturally， a lot of great research papers related to International Economics are written in English. Therefore， we are taught through English and use authentic materials.

The teaching objectives of implementing EMI in our school is to cultivate interdisciplinary talents who can master not only professional knowledge but also be proficient in foreign languages. It s worth noting that this type of course focuses more on subject content instead of the language itself so that English proficiency can be an additional value gained.

The sociocultural environment is favourable for our school to implement EMI. China， as a newcomer to EMI in tertiary education， started to promote EMI teaching at the beginning of 2000s， so Chinese universities have enjoyed strong policy support （Fang， 2018）. Apart from this driving force， EMI is also promoted in China as an effective way of overcoming the perceived problems of traditional language teaching in Chinese universities. Its distinct strength is regarded as the killing of two birds with one stone， which is obtaining both academic learning and English proficiency in one classroom. Thus， to raise the quality of undergraduate education， the Chinese Ministry of Education （MOE， 2001） promoted EMI as a critical policy initiative， prescribed the minimum proportions of EMI courses and mandated the number of EMI courses as an essential requirement for university assessment and quality control （MOE， 2005， 2007）. With such strong policy support， universities across China started to introduce EMI programs， including my university.

3. Background of EMI

3.1 Global expansion of EMI

On a global scale， many universities implement EMI courses for the purpose of improving the international competitiveness of talents and speeding up the internationalization of higher education （Dearden & Macaro， 2016）. In addition， to promote global rankings and to attract international students are also considered to be essential factors of EMI teaching among many universities （Doiz et al.， 2011）.

In Europe， for example， despite that most of European countries mother tongue is not English， European universities offer a wealth of EMI training projects. The European Academic Cooperation Association （ACA） began tracking EMI training programs among 28 non-English speaking universities. Results show that the number of EMI programs increased by ten times from 725 in 2001， to 2389 in 2007， and eventually to 8089 in 2014. Overall， nearly a quarter of European universities run EMI training courses （W?chter & Maiworm， 2014）.

In Asia， countries such as South Korea， Japan and Kazakhstan have made EMI a key to their internationalization strategy. South Korean government has intensified its efforts to promote the internationalization of education （Yu et al. 2014）. For example， by 2012， 81.5% of undergraduate courses and 92.2% of graduate courses of Posco University were taught in English， and students were required to write reports and papers in English （ibid）. Besides， Korea University stipulates that undergraduates must complete 5 EMI courses to graduate （ibid）.

Japan has a strong demand for EMI teaching in strengthening its economic competitiveness and promoting the internationalization of universities （Brown， Iyobe， 2014）. There had been 227 universities in Japan started construction of EMI classes since 2006. In 2009， the Japanese Ministry of Education emphasized the importance of EMI projects. So far， Japan has been actively expanding the recruitment of international students and increasing EMI courses （Leong， 2017）.

Kazakhstan also regards the cultivation of English language ability as the key to its international strategy. The government issued the National Education Development Plan （2011-2020）， requiring that 20% of teachers should carry out EMI teaching by 2020 （Dearden， 2016）. Countries such as Indonesia， Pakistan and Sri Lanka also implement EMI teaching in order to enhance their international competitiveness， while countries such as Azerbaijan and Saudi Arabia regard EMI teaching as an important means to promote employment opportunities.

3.2 EMI expansion in China

With the establishment of English as an international academic lingua franca in the world， China， driven by academic internationalization， has rushed to follow the global trend of teaching in EMI （Graddol 2006; Wilkinson 2013）. In 2007， the Chinese Ministry of Education put forward the plan of establishing 500 national EMI courses. In this context， many universities in China have accelerated the construction of EMI courses.

For example， Tsinghua University has set up an international training platform for undergraduates and 13 master's degree programs in EMI. Currently， it has established more than 200 EMI courses every semester. With the goal of cultivating more international talents， Peking University first carried out pilot EMI in professional basic courses for undergraduate students in 2012. Until 2017， there were a total of 314 EMI courses at Peking University. North China University of technology has formulated the education development plan for international students from 2013 to 2020 and currently offers three undergraduate majors in EMI， including Architecture， International Economy and Trade， and Electronic Engineering， as well as master's degree programs in business administration in EMI.

4. Issues of implementing EMI in my context

EMI programs gain more and more popularity in China nowadays， and undeniably it brings many benefits to stakeholders. For example， it can improve students English language ability and intercultural competence， and enhance the university s reputation （Dearden， 2014）. However， there still exists many problems， which attached the attention of many researchers. According to Sert （2008）， EMI courses are effective for language skills development， but not for academic knowledge acquisition. Chang （2010） also found that the students overall did not think that they had a high level of comprehension of their EMI lectures. My university has also established EMI program for some majors since 2010. As one of the students of EMI project， I believe that although this project has its own advantages， it is not mature enough and has a series of issues according to my own studying experience， which are reflected in the following aspects.

4.1 Inadequate level of English language proficiency of lecturers

Coughlan （2017） states that communicating with people in one's native language is like watching a high-definition， colour movie. However， if we use a second language， communication will be like watching a low-resolution， black and white blur movie even if we try our best. This metaphor vividly illustrates that teachers who are not native English speakers may cause information "distortion" when teaching EMI courses， which may bring students difficulties in understanding and cognition， or even fallacies.

Hu et al. （2014） found that the actual language practice of EMI program was restricted by the English level of professors and students. According to Klaassen & De Graaff （2001）， teachers have problems in pronunciation， dialect， fluency， tone， and lack of nonverbal behaviours. When the teacher is trying to explain the basic concept of professional courses， the clarity and accuracy of terms might be reduced， which would affect students' understanding of professional knowledge. Although all the EMI professors had had studying or academic visiting experience in overseas universities， their communicative command of English was perceived to be inadequate by themselves， their colleagues and students. Hu et al. （2014） pointed out in an interview study that the EMI professors might be able to teach the textbook content by following it closely， but they are unable to use authentic oral English to deliver the instructional content competently. The lecturers were found to be less flexible and improvisational in their classrooms than their colleagues who taught through Chinese， in terms of Chinese when they taught difficult or challenging content， and give a superficial treatment of the instructional content （Hu et al.， 2014）.

Reviewing to my previous study， my International Economics teacher is not a native English speaker and she had a severe dialectal accent when she spoke English， which made it take a long time for us to reflect what she said in class. In addition to the confusing accent， although my teacher had academic visiting experience in America， she was unable to teach interactively， spontaneously， and in a freewheeling manner. When she thought about wordings， it reduced the flexibility of teaching content delivery， which led to extended monologues and less interaction between us. This made our study of this course at a low level. All in all， compared with the general courses taught in our mother tongue， this course using EMI was less flexible and less effective.

4.2 Lack of interaction and inadequate teaching pedagogies

I believe that inappropriate teaching pedagogies is one of the bottlenecks in the implementation of EMI teaching in many countries at present， and it is the same in my learning experience.

Dearden （2016） states that the ability to articulate complex concepts is one of the most critical skills for EMI teachers. Studies reveal that the interaction between teachers and students is reduced in EMI mode （Airey & Linder 2006）， teachers' ability to perform in the classroom is reduced， and the clarity and accuracy of imparts are reduced （Olsen & Huckin， 1990; Vinke et al.， 1998）. Research findings reveal that most of EMI classes are teacher-centred， and the interaction is led by teachers while students spend most of time just listening to teachers （Evans & Morrison， 2017）. Ha （2011） reports that in the EMI settings students have a lower degree of class interaction Yu et al. （2014） report that almost 50% （10，115 of 21，419） of the students surveyed participate in less than 40% of class activities in EMI class.

Furthermore， studies have shown that lecturers are not well-versed in EMI pedagogies. They seldom provide linguistic feedback on students work， which would be helpful for the improvement of students English skills， and students feel that teachers cannot maintain a communicative and well-organized class （Hwang 2013）. Hu & Lei （2014） also mentioned that teachers seem to lack innovative pedagogies that can help to deal with language barriers. These are why students sometimes show dissatisfaction with teachers teaching methods （Evans & Morrison， 2017）.

Reviewing back to my college studying experience， the teachers of my professional courses were assigned to teach EMI courses just because they had abroad studying experience or had an excellent English level. Although they have good professional quality and English ability， it does not automatically mean that they are qualified for EMI teaching. EMI courses require teachers not only to have a high level of professional knowledge， but also to be able to impart professional proficiency in English. This is not just a simple translation of existing native language course materials into English， but also involves issues such as pedagogy， teaching methods and interactive methods. Before teaching the EMI courses， my teachers have not received systematic and specialized training in EMI teaching methods and skills.

4.3 Inadequate level of English language proficiency of students

Students English level in EMI class is a crucial factor that determines the outcome of EMI （Stryker and Leaver 1997; Swain and Johnson 1997）. Many scholars have confirmed the importance of students English proficiency for successful EMI. In the study of the effects of EMI， Marsh et al. （2000， cited in Coleman， 2006） demonstrated that EMI classes that require a higher degree of English proficiency had opposite effects on the students and suggested that only students with excellent English skills should be given EMI. In the studies of students knowledge input in EMI class， results show that less than 30% of students think that they understand over 80% of EMI （Park， 2018）. It is also reported that students with lower English proficiency showed low levels of academic achievement in EMI classes （ibid）. Moreover， students insufficient English ability is chosen as the most critical reason that they do not prefer or feel difficult in EMI courses （ibid）. Generally speaking， when students' average English ability is at a low level， it will reduce students' enthusiasm for participation in EMI courses （Dearden， 2016）.

As I mentioned before， students who entered in our class are not only selected through the grades of English， so our English level varied widely. As a result， when we were studying EMI courses， students of different language levels had different effects on absorbing the same knowledge. My classmates with a good command of English were more likely to absorb what the teacher said， while those with a poor command of English had an opposite effect.

4.4 Hindering academic knowledge acquisition

The most critical problem for EMI in Chinese higher education is possibly the degree to which it interferes with students pursuit of academic depth. Several studies have demonstrated that EMI harms students knowledge acquisition （Joe and Lee， 2013）. Research found that it tends to take more time and energy to learn or teach in English which students are not familiar with， so teachers have to reduce the content covered in one semester （Hu， Li & Lei， 2014）. It is also shown that students are opposed to EMI due to ineffective EMI classes. They may improve English ability， but it hinders the learning of subject content. Oh and Lee （2010） show that the professors surveyed felt that being unable to deliver their knowledge of major fields to a satisfactory level was the most crucial problem for EMI （cited in Walkinshaw et al.， 2017）.

For example， in my professional class， Microeconomics class， we used authentic materials written by foreigners. In the textbook， there were a lot of technical terms or long sentences， so our teacher spent more time translating and explaining the definitions of technical terms. Besides， some of my teachers watered-down curricular content in order to make up for our language difficulties.  As a result， at the end of the semester， only a few chapters could be covered， and we did not learn in-depth. In addition， I have studied EMI courses since I was a freshman. Because of unfamiliar language， I did not build a solid foundation for my basic professional knowledge. As one of the students in EMI program， I felt like my knowledge acquisition in Micro-economics was far from enough. What left on my mind in this course was only the definitions of some academic terms instead of in-depth knowledge.

5. Curriculum and methodology

In this part， I am going to discuss how to adapt EMI better in my context.

5.1 Introducing EMI to students in later years

In my opinion， for EMI course to be more productive， our curriculum arrangement should be changed. Studies indicate that it should be introduced to students in the later years of the study as students need time to adapt. The first academic year is the most treasure stage for students to build a solid foundation for their study by acquiring basic knowledge of their major fields （Walkinshaw et al.， 2017）. According to the study of Park （2018）， first-year students struggled more in EMI classes than the older students did.

In my context， EMI was introduced from the beginning of my first academic year. At that time， I knew nothing about my major， International Economics. In addition， as most of the students in my class had insufficient English proficiency for EMI， it was too complicated and stressful for us to be imparted new knowledge in a language that we are not familiar with. After all， we all need time to adapt EMI. Therefore， in the first academic year， to better consolidate the basic knowledge， I suppose the teacher should only use a little English or not speak English at all. When the second academic year is coming， more English and less Chinese will be used. In the third and fourth year， English should be the prominent language.

5.2 Apply code-switching to Chinese

Some studies show that students understand more content when learning with the assistant of the first language （Galloway， 2017）. When summarizing important concepts， key terms， and questions， it is necessary for the teacher to apply code-switching to Chinese. It is to embed Chinese words， sentences， or constituents in English interaction （Chen， 1996）， which is a crucial methodology in EMI class. In my context， English language barrier seems to be the toughest problem. If I were an EMI teacher， I would apply code-switching to Chinese， switch from English to Chinese when explaining difficult materials. I would also repeat the same explanations when students fail to understand.

According to Tian and Hennebry （2016）s empirical research， L1 translation in EMI classroom helps to facilitate students learning and release students anxiety. Although students in my class all passed the screening exam， it does not automatically mean that we can understand all the content taught in English. Therefore， if I were the teacher， I would always translate instructional content and some difficult theories to Chinese in the first academic year. After students adapt more with EMI， I would use less Chinese.

5.3 Teaching pedagogy

Based on the current research and practice， teachers teaching pedagogy is the decisive factor for the success of EMI courses （Skelton， 2005）. When it comes to how content is delivered best， most experts and researchers agree that student-centred learning is to be preferred to teacher-centred learning （Gr?blinger， 2017）. In my context， EMI class seems to lack interaction between teachers and students. The teacher is the centre， and most of the time in class we just listen to teachers. In this condition， our minds are always wandering and easily miss important facts. Therefore， I suppose that student-centred education is more suitable in my context.

To better state the methodology adapted in my context， I will divide one lecture into five sessions， which include review session， lecture session， discussion session， answer session and summary session.

5.3.1 Review session

In this session， the lecturer recaps the concepts learned in the last lecture. Besides， if the students are confused about the homework assigned in the previous class， the teacher will take a few minutes to explain the homework.

5.3.2 Lecture session

During the lecture session， the lecturer will introduce new concepts at a low pace. As Chuang （2015） states， introducing concepts at a slow pace can give students more time to translate and comprehend the lecture content. Yeh （2013） also states that students can better understand class materials if the EMI lecturer slows down the presentation speed. Therefore， in this session， the teacher should control the speaking speed. Moreover， the teacher will employ some teaching aids such as blackboards， PowerPoint presentations， lecture handouts， and videos to facilitate students understanding of new concepts. Such visual aid can help students to comprehend what they cannot understand through the verbal explanation. In addition， watching students faces to gauge their reactions and adjusting the speech accordingly is also important （Chuang， 2015）. If students listen with confused expressions， the teacher should repeat what she/he said more slowly in order to be better understood.

5.3.3 Discussion session

During the discussion session， the teacher will assign a few questions about the knowledge taught in the last session. The students will be required to form a group and discuss the questions together. According to De Vita （2000）， class participation in the form of discussion is a usual requirement in classrooms， and discussion is often seen as a valuable learning tool. Students can also see participation in discussions with classmates as a valuable learning tool （Wells， 2005）. Vygotsky （1980） also states that social interaction is essential for students to develop cognition. Therefore， in the discussion session， students will use lecture slides or textbooks to search the concepts and discuss the questions with their group partners. In this way， students with insufficient English proficiency who did not understand the previously taught concepts can develop cognition with their partners during the discussion sessions， and their partners can act as a helper. In addition， during the discussion sessions， the teacher should walk to each group to obtain a snapshot of their current comprehension of the class. If the instructor sees that many students have no idea about the assigned questions， the questions will be adjusted accordingly， for example， translate the questions into Chinese to make sure everyone can understand them， and then let students re-discuss the questions.

5.3.4 Answer session

In this session， the teacher will randomly ask students to present their answers. Students can use both Chinese and English to answer the question. If students choose to state their answers in Chinese， the teacher restates the answers in English to assure everyone comprehends， vice versa. If students answer wrong， the teacher will correct them or have other students correct them. If only a few students can get the correct answers， the teacher might re-introduce the concepts from the previous lecture session and review them next lecture in a more detailed way.

5.3.5 Summary session

In this session， the teacher spends a few minutes summarizing all the concepts that she had introduced in the current lecture， and assign the homework for students to consolidate what they learn in the current class.

6. Conclusion

This paper first described the global expansion of EMI and its expansion in China， identified the popularity of implementing EMI in higher education system all around the world. It then discussed some issues in my context， including the inadequate level of English language proficiency of lecturers and students， inappropriate teaching pedagogy and hindering academic knowledge acquisition.

Based on these issues， it then suggested the appropriate curriculum and methodology that can adapt to the EMI education in my context. This paper argued that EMI education should not introduce EMI to students in the first academic year and apply code-switching to Chinese when necessary. It then gave suggestions on teaching pedagogy by dividing a lecture into five sessions， review session， lecture session， discussion session， answer session and summary session.

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